TAG Unit 2.3: Objectives and Problems

June 2003

1. Policy Instruments
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Integration of Policy Measures
1.3 Land-Use Measures
1.4 Infrastructure Measures
Provision for Public Transport
Provision for Cyclists and Pedestrians
Provision for Freight
1.5 Management Measures
Improved provision for the Car
Measures to Restrain the Car
Provision for Public Transport
Provision for Cyclists and Pedestrians
Provision for Freight
1.6 Information Provision
Improved provision for the Car
Measures to Restrain Car Use
Provision for Public Transport
Provisions for Cyclists and Pedestrians
Provision for Freight
1.7 Pricing Measures
Measures to Restrain the Car
Provision for Public Transport
Provision for Cyclists and Pedestrians
Provision for Freight

2. Further Information

3. References

4. Document Provenance

1. Policy Instruments

1.1 Introduction

1.1.1 Transport planners have available to them a wide range of instruments of transport policy. These are the means by which the objectives established for the study see The Steps in the Process (TAG Unit 2.1) - can be achieved, and problems identified can be overcome. The information presented in this TAG Unit is a key input to the “options for solutions” step in the process.

1.1.2 The 60 or so policy instruments outlined in this TAG Unit cover both urban and inter-urban policy instruments. However, even in inter-urban studies the need to consider issues such as pedestrian severance, or alternative modes for large point-to-point demands, means that the full range of instruments should be considered. Moreover, where inter-urban schemes bypass, or provide access into, urban areas, then the urban instruments will be very relevant. Guidance on local transport plans (DETR, 1999a) gives a clear lead that highway authorities should encourage cycling and walking. This should be borne in mind in all studies, whether roads based or multi-modal.

1.1.3 The instruments are considered under the headings of land use measures (Section 1.3); infrastructure provision (Section 1.4); management of the infrastructure (Section 1.5); information provision (Section 1.6) and pricing (Section 1.7). The text under each entry briefly describes the policy instrument, gives references for further information, and provides guidance on the range of situations in which the policy instrument might be applicable.

1.2 Integration of Policy Measures

1.2.1 No one measure on its own is likely to provide a solution to the transport problems within the study areas. Whilst all the instruments described in this TAG Unit can contribute to the achievement of the Government’s five objectives for integrated transport, it is anticipated that the most effective solutions will consist of packages of different measures.

1.2.2 Packaging measures effectively can:

• reinforce, extend or complement the impact of a particular measure - for example, the use of traffic calming to reinforce the benefits of building a bypass; a reduction in bus fares to extend the user-benefits of bus priority measures;
• mitigate potential adverse impacts of a particular measure - for example, traffic management systems to minimise the adverse impacts on accessibility and the make a package financially feasible - for example using revenue from parking charges, a fares increase or road pricing to finance new infrastructure; and
• increase public acceptability of a particular measure - for example road pricing may be more acceptable to travellers if the revenue raised is used to invest in public transport.

1.3 Land-Use Measures

1.3.1 Developments within transport corridors and near to transport nodes provide a way of concentrating denser development, and that which can more readily use public transport, in those areas where public transport is readily available. This can lead to a corridor-style development, and has been used to considerable effect in cities such as Toronto (Knight and Trygg, 1977). Such strategies should reduce journey lengths, improve accessibility and have some efficiency and environmental benefits.

1.3.2 Development mix is strongly advocated in PPG13 (ODPM, 2002). By locating development in such a way that houses are closer to places of work, schools, shops and leisure facilities, the need to travel and distances travelled can be reduced. The PPG13 Guidance on Good Practice (DoE/DoT, 1995), cites Almere in the Netherlands, parts of Edinburgh, Richmond and Crawley as examples of good practice in mixing land-uses as part of re-development or new developments.

1.3.3 Development densities: similarly, higher densities enable more opportunities to be reached within a given distance, and hence may encourage shorter journeys and use of slow modes. By increasing population and employment densities, they may also make public transport more viable. Some examples of schemes attempting to encourage centralisation in London and Watford are given in DoE/DoT (1995). Revised guidance on housing density is set out in Planning Policy Guidance Note No.3: Housing (DETR (now ODPM), 2000).

1.3.4 Parking standards: PPG13 requires local authorities to set maximum parking standards in their development plans, and sets national maximum standards for certain land uses, including retail, leisure and B1 offices. Guidance on parking standards for housing is also set out in PPG3.

1.3.5 Company Travel Plans. In the UK, these are usually voluntary schemes whereby companies at existing sites encourage employees to use alternatives rather than driving alone. Recent tax changes also encourage employer-funding of public transport. There are several examples of Company Travel Plans in action, for example the HA toolkit has an example of the Highways Agency’s own travel plan (HA, 1998). The largest benefits from these plans will result when a majority of companies in an area implement such schemes. The Government has issued a range of guidance on travel plans, including the Travel plan resources pack for employers (DETR/EEBPP, 2000 (revised 2002)), and Using the Planning System to Secure Travel Plans: Best Practice Guidance for Local Authorities, Developers and Occupiers (DfT, 2002c). The Government’s travel plan guidance is available from the DfT Local Transport web pages.

1.3.6 Company travel plans may also be required by a local authority to be submitted alongside a major planning application. PPG13 sets out the context of when this can occur and the weight which might be given to a travel plan in a planning decision. It is important to ensure that it is secured through either a condition or a planning obligation. For further information see Using the Planning System to Secure Travel Plans: Best Practice Guidance for Local Authorities, Developers and Occupiers (DfT, 2002c).

1.3.7 Flexible or staggered working hours are designed to reduce demand for peak travel and the resulting congestion. They may also encourage car sharing or switching to public transport as employees can adjust their working hours to match the schedules imposed. A variant of flexible working is the four day week in which employees work the same hours per week, but travel on one fewer day.

1.3.8 Commuted payments were a form of developer contributions whereby a requirement for private parking provision at new developments would have been waived in return for payment to the local authority of a charge per space so that the local authority could have made provision in public car parks. Given the policy move from minimum parking spaces to maximum, signalled in the original version of PPG13 and reinforced in the 2002 revision, there is no basis in guidance for seeking commuted payments, as planning authorities cannot charge a developer for something that is not being asked for. Instead negotiations around planning obligations on transport should be based on achieving better access to a site by all transport modes, with an emphasis on walking, cycling and public transport. As the draft version makes clear, the policy change would have an inverse effect on costs, with lower levels of contributions appropriate for schemes in town centres and other sites well served by a choice of modes, and higher contributions to deliver improvements to access in poorly served, peripheral locations.

1.3.9 Telecommunications. The use of teleworking, teleshopping and teleconferencing are growing in popularity and practicality. Studies in the US and Holland suggest that teleworking can reduce car use; typical teleworkers work from home two days a week, and their cars are used much less on the days when they are at home (Hamer et al, 1991; Kitamura et al, 1991). The scope for teleworking and its impact on car use in the UK is not yet known, although attitudinal surveys suggest that up to 40% of commuters would prefer to work at home (Dodgson et al, 1997). Teleworking is seen as particularly attractive for long distance (inter-urban) commuters. A variant is ‘Telecottages’ (common remote offices for use by teleworkers) where the aim is to encourage local economic development. There are over 100 telecottages already operational in the UK (DoE/DoT, 1995). Less is known about the likely impacts of teleshopping and teleconferencing.

1.4 Infrastructure Measures

1.4.1 New road construction. The success of new road construction and improvements in reducing congestion has come under increasing criticism. Increasing road capacity can, in some circumstances, induce additional traffic, thus partially eroding the road user time-saving benefits (1994 SACTRA Report).

1.4.2 There are particular direct environmental concerns associated with road improvements, such as land-take, habitat destruction or loss of landscape quality. There are also indirect impacts. New road schemes may encourage longer journeys and increased speeds. This in turn will make public transport, cycling and walking relatively less attractive, and increase fuel consumption and carbon dioxide emissions. Moreover, new roads may well, if not carefully designed, worsen accessibility across the alignment, particularly for pedestrians and cyclists.

1.4.3 New roads can, however, by bypassing particularly sensitive urban areas, achieve environmental and accessibility improvements. In this way, orbital roads can have a different impact from radial ones. However, these are only likely to be sustained if steps are taken to redesign the roads that have been relieved of traffic.

1.4.4 Road improvements can also contribute to a reduction in accidents, by transferring traffic to higher quality roads whose accident rates should be much lower than those of typical urban streets. To some extent this effect, too, may be eroded by the induction of new traffic and increased speeds.

1.4.5 New roads are extremely expensive; costs of £20m per kilometre are not uncommon in urban areas, and provision for environmental protection may result in figures substantially above this. Even significant time and accident savings may be difficult to justify when set against such costs.

1.4.6 The impact of new roads on economic regeneration is complex. The Standing Advisory Committee on Trunk Road Assessment (SACTRA) published a report on transport and the economy in August 1999. This made a number of recommendations on the appraisal of economic impacts of investment in transport infrastructure. The Government’s response to the SACTRA report on “Transport and the Economy” is available on the DfT website.

1.4.7 New off-street car parks can contribute to user travel time savings by reducing the need to search for parking space. However, lack of parking also acts as a control on car use, and expansion may simply encourage additional car use. New off-street parking may therefore be best combined with a reduction in on street parking. This should reduce searching traffic (since parking locations are clearer), improve the environment and increase safety. It may, however, aggravate accessibility and security problems.

Provision for Public Transport

1.4.8 Conventional rail provision includes significant upgrades to existing infrastructure, as well as the reopening of closed rail lines and provision of new stations. There are several well documented studies of the impact of such measures, and procedures for predicting their effects (Nash et al, 1991). Such schemes can reduce travel time for existing users and attract users from other modes, and contribute positively to the environment by transferring journeys off the roads.

1.4.9 Rail infrastructure measures can also contribute positively to accessibility, by reducing access distances to public transport, by reducing waiting times and, particularly, by increasing in-vehicle speeds, since the trains are protected from road congestion.

1.4.10 Light rail can be expected to have a similar impact to conventional rail in many respects. Its main differences are that it can operate on street, have more frequent stops, and achieve better penetration of town centres. Light rail schemes are expensive, not least because of the requirements of street running. The guidance on Local Transport Plans (DETR, 1999a) states that due to their expense, funding for light rail is not a priority, unless the objectives it meets cannot be met in other ways, and some funding can be found from other sources. In due course, local authorities may be in a position to develop light rail schemes using revenues from congestion charging or workplace parking levies.

1.4.11 Guided bus can provide a lower cost alternative to light rail. Totally separate rights of way can be provided along the length of the whole route, or solely where buses need to bypass congestion, as in most UK proposals. This allows much more extensive suburban coverage than can usually be achieved with light rail.

1.4.12 Park and ride extends the catchment of fixed track public transport into lower density areas, by enabling car drivers to drive to stations on the main line. It has also been used successfully in smaller cities such as Oxford and York in conjunction with dedicated bus services. By increasing the public transport use, park and ride can reduce congestion, environmental intrusion and accidents in inner urban areas. The impacts on environment and traffic outside urban areas is less clear. In some circumstances, park and ride may generate longer journeys and take part of its demand from passengers who previously used public transport for their whole journey. The net effect will depend on where the facility is located and implementation of complementary measures such as higher parking charges.

1.4.13 Terminals and interchanges provide a means of extending the coverage of public transport services, by reducing the time taken to interchange between bus services or between bus and rail. They also provide a focus for city centre bus services, and reduce the congestion of on-street stops and terminals. Good information provision, through ticketing, and simple, integrated timetables can also be used to improve existing and informal interchange facilities.

Provision for Cyclists and Pedestrians

1.4.14 Cycle routes provide dedicated infrastructure for cyclists, and hence extend cycle provision. They can achieve significant improvements in safety for cyclists and improve journey times. They may also attract more people to cycle in preference to driving, particularly if combined with other measures to make car use less attractive, such as parking restrictions. Guidance on the principles and design standards of cycle route provision is available from Cycle friendly infrastructure (IHT/DoT/CTC, 1996) supplemented by a range of additional publications that is listed in Cycling Bibliography (DfT, 2003- updated annually).

1.4.15 Pedestrian areas can provide a dramatic improvement in the environment for pedestrians, increase safety, and enhance retail vitality in town and city centres. Current guidance, including traffic advisory leaflets, on infrastructural measures to encourage walking is available from the DfT website.

1.4.16 Potential adverse impacts on accessibility for bus users, goods deliveries and for disabled people, and diversion to surrounding areas can be reduced through careful design. PPG13 Guide to Good Practice gives examples of York and Birmingham where such schemes have been well implemented. There is little evidence to support traders’ claims that pedestrian streets cause a loss in overall trade, although what changes may arise in the composition of shops is less well understood.

Provision for Freight

1.4.17 Lorry parks provide a means of reducing the environmental impact of on-street overnight parking of lorries.

1.4.18 Trans-shipment facilities aim to provide a means of transferring goods from the larger vehicles needed for efficient line haul to smaller, less environmentally intrusive vehicles for distribution in town centres. Other proposals have envisaged trolleying of goods over short distances and underground freight distribution.

1.4.19 Encouragement of other modes is likely to focus primarily on rail-borne freight, but in appropriate cases could extend to water and pipeline. There is potential in the ‘hydraulic capsule piping’ approach (Howgego and Roe, 1998). Such schemes are still largely unimplemented, especially in the UK. Alternative modes are most likely to be competitive over longer distances.

1.5 Management Measures

Improved provision for the car

1.5.1 Conventional traffic management includes a wide range of largely urban measures. These are well documented in IHT 1997 and include measures such as one-way streets, redesign of junctions, banned turns and controls on on-street parking. Such measures can have beneficial impacts on travel time and on accidents. Impacts on accessibility, bus services, deliveries, journey lengths and speeds will depend on the packaging and design of these measures. Effectiveness may also depend on enforcement.

1.5.2 Urban traffic control (UTC) systems are a specialist form of traffic management which integrate and co-ordinate traffic signal control over a wide area. They use signal settings to optimise a given objective function such as minimising travel time or stops and can also be extended to provide for bus priority and integration with information systems. These tools can also improve environment and safety.

1.5.3 Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS) covers a range of applications of information technology for transport. This includes motorway access control (ramp metering), automatic incident detection (AID), image processing of CCTV, selective vehicle priority, queue management techniques and many other experimental measures (see HA Toolkit). These can be deployed to relieve congestion and improve safety.

1.5.4 Accident remedial measures also cover a wide range of possibilities, and are much more fully documented elsewhere (IHT, 1990, 1997). Most bla ckspot treatment and mass action measures (such as skid-resistant surfacing) have high local safety benefits, but little impact beyond this. Area-wide measures are likely to have other impacts, and are considered below under the general heading of traffic calming.

Measures to Restrain the Car

1.5.5 Traffic restraint measures are designed to reduce the adverse environmental and safety impacts of car (and commercial vehicle) use. They have traditionally focused on residential streets (but are increasingly being extended to main roads) and have involved two types of approach: segregation, in which extraneous traffic is removed; and integration, in which traffic is permitted, but encouraged to respect the environment.

1.5.6 Segregation can be achieved by the use of traffic management techniques such as one way streets, closures and banned turns, which create a ‘maze’ or ‘labyrinth’, which makes through movement difficult, and hence diverts it to more suitable routes. An alternative approach, more often used in city centres, is the traffic cell, in which an area is divided into cells, between which traffic movement, except perhaps for buses and emergency vehicles, is physically prohibited. Potential adverse impact on accessibility for local residents and on congestion and environment on diversion routes needs to be considered in designing such schemes.

1.5.7 Integration measures include traffic calming techniques such as low speed limits, speed humps, chicanes, pinch points, resurfacing and planting, all designed to encourage the driver to drive more slowly and cautiously. These can achieve significant reductions in speed and accidents. By making routes through residential areas slower, they can also induce re-routing to major roads, and hence a reduction in environmental impact. Such benefits may, of course, be offset by increases in congestion and environmental impact on the diversion route. Information and advice on traffic calming is available as traffic advisory leaflets and other publications available from the DfT website.

1.5.8 Other physical restrictions on car use. Possibilities include extensive pedestrian areas and traffic calming, and also the use of bus lanes (see paragraph 1.5.16) to reduce capacity at junctions and give clear priority to buses. More radical elements include closing roads or restrictions such as the City of London "ring of steel" scheme. By reducing traffic such schemes can offset some of the potential disbenefits such as increased travel time, and greater congestion.

1.5.9 Regulatory restrictions on car use have been used in several cities as an alternative way of reducing car use. Two main methods are in use; permits and number plate restrictions. In several Italian cities, permits are allocated to those who can justify needing their cars in the centre, and others are banned. A similar system is operated in Bologna, where 50,000 permits were issued restricting access to the centre. Number plate restrictions are in operation in Athens and Lagos, where an "odds and evens" system operates, in which cars with odd number plates can enter on alternate days, and those with even numbers on the other days. Such schemes can reduce congestion and journey lengths.

1.5.10 Parking controls can control car use by reducing the supply of spaces, restricting duration or opening hours, regulating use through permits or charging. The last of these is considered in paragraph 1.7.1. Local authorities are able to impose any of these controls on on-street space and in publicly operated car parks. Powers also exist under sections 43 and 44 of the Road Traffic Regulation Act 1984 to enable controls to be extended to privately-operated public car parks, although these have been only rarely used because of compensation implications. At present, there are, however, no direct controls which can be imposed on private non-residential parking, which typically accounts for 40% to 80% of all town centre spaces. The recently introduced Transport Bill contains provisions which will enable local authorities to levy a charge on workplace parking spaces (see paragraph 1.7.2). Targeted restrictions on duration or on categories of parker may be used to ease congestion.

1.5.11 Car sharing encourages drivers to share their cars with others or to ‘car pool’ by taking it in turns to drive. Such schemes are highly likely to be more successful when linked to other policies such as company travel plans (see paragraph 1.3.5).

Provision for Public Transport

1.5.12 Bus priorities enable buses to bypass congested traffic and hence to experience reduced and more reliable journey times. The most common measures are with-flow bus lanes; others include bus-gates or bus only sections, exemption from banned turns, selective detection at signals, and UTC timings weighted to favour buses. Contra-flow bus lanes and bus access to pedestrian areas are designed specifically to reduce the adverse impact on buses of certain traffic management measures. Bus priority lanes can be designed to keep loss of capacity to other traffic to a minimum, for example by providing a setback at the stop line. In such cases travel time savings to buses can exceed 25% with minimal losses to other traffic. The segregation of traffic may also enhance safety. Combined with traffic management, adverse impacts on accessibility can be minimised.

1.5.13 A more recent development in bus priorities has been the use of Red Routes in London (called Greenways in Edinburgh), in which bus lanes are combined with intensive and well enforced, parking restrictions. Travel time savings on the pilot Red Route were dramatic, while the evidence on effects on frontage access and trade is mixed (Wood and Smith, 1992).

1.5.14 High occupancy vehicle lanes extend the use of with-flow (and potentially contra-flow) bus lanes to other vehicles which make more effective use of scarce road space. These can include car sharers, taxis and commercial vehicles. Trials of this in an arterial corridor in Leeds since 1998 suggest traffic flows had fallen by around 14%. Average car occupancy in the morning peak has risen from 1.35 to 1.41 for the road as a whole, and 2.19 for the HOV lane (Leeds City Council, 1999). Experience elsewhere has suggested that HOV lanes can provide greater benefits than conventional bus lanes, provided that the delays to buses are not great. The bus operators in the Leeds scheme, have reported time savings of 3-6 minutes along the 1.5km HOV lane section.

1.5.15 Public transport service levels can be modified to increase patronage, and hence to attract diversion from car use. For bus services the main options are to increase route density or to increase frequency on existing routes. The first of these reduces walking time, while the second affects waiting time. Since both of these have a greater impact on passengers than does a similar change in time on the bus, they can be expected to be more effective in increasing patronage (Webster et al, 1980). The most appropriate allocation of a given fleet of buses between denser and more frequent routes will depend on local circumstances. Other bus service measures include the use of minibuses which can achieve greater penetration and may be more attractive (White, 1992); and demand-responsive bus services, such as dial-a-bus. There is also a wide spectrum of paratransit measures involving unconventional bus and taxi services; their impacts are too varied to summarise here. With rail services, the only option available is usually to increase service frequency.

1.5.16 Bus service management measures can be designed to improve the reliability of bus services and reduce operating costs, using fleet management procedures, and enhance their quality of service using real-time information. These measures are likely to be particularly beneficial in reducing uncertainty in travel time, and the extra waiting time resulting from irregular services, which are major disincentives to travel (Finnamore and Jackson, 1978; Webster et al, 1980). Such measures can generate significant efficiency benefits, and contribute to reduced car use. There are some recent examples of collaboration between local authorities and operators to achieve such benefits (McDonald and Tarrant, 1994).

1.5.17 Quality Bus Partnerships are agreements between local authorities and bus operators to enhance bus services (TAS, 1997). The aim is to achieve higher quality services that will attract more passengers. The local authority role is to enhance the infrastructure and bus priority measures, while the bus operator provides high quality buses, information, integrated services and integrated ticketing. There is strong evidence that such partnerships can increase public transport patronage, and figures for trial corridors are between 5%-42% (TAS, 1997). Quality Bus Partnerships therefore offer accessibility and equity benefits, via improved public transport services and quality. The Transport Bill introduced on 1 December 1999 provides for a range of powers to promote and improve bus travel, including a statutory basis for Quality Partnerships, and an option for Quality Contracts which would enable local authorities to grant exclusive rights to operators to provide services to a local authority specification (subject to Ministerial consent).

Provision for Cyclists and Pedestrians

1.5.18 Cycle lanes and priorities serve the same function as cycle routes (paragraph 1.4.14) and experience with them is similar (Tolley, 1997). They reduce accidents for cyclists, and may encourage some increase in cycle use. The provision of improved cycling measures is a key element of school travel strategies and plans. Guidance is contained in the DfT publication School Travel Strategies and Plans - A Best Practice Guide for Local Authorities published in June 1999 (DETR, 1999d), see also DfT Traffic Advisory Leaflets.

1.5.19 Cycle parking provision can be improved by, for example, introducing secure cycle parking, lockers or wardened facilities (such as in Leicester). By improving facilities and security for cyclists it may be possible to attract more people to cycling. Guidance on cycle parking is available from DfT traffic advisory leaflets, as well as cyclists’ organisations such as the CTC.

1.5.20 Improved pedestrian crossing facilities can improve safety and reduce travel time for pedestrians. It is not uncommon to find that total delay to pedestrians at city centre junctions exceeds that for vehicle users. In such circumstances, reallocation of signal time and linking of pedestrian phases, alone or as part of UTMC, may achieve accessibility benefits and reduce severance. Other measures such as parking controls and footway widening may also improve environment and safety for pedestrians. DfT traffic advisory leaflets are available on pedestrian crossing facilities.

Provision for Freight

1.5.21 Lorry routes and bans are primarily designed to reduce the environmental intrusion of heavy lorries and to improve safety. Routes can be mandatory or advisory. Bans can be area-wide (for example in the cells between lorry routes) or limited to particular roads, or applied solely to short lengths of road forming a screenline or cordon. They can be complete, or limited to certain times and certain sizes of vehicle, or with exemptions for access. CCTV is being increasingly used as an enforcement presence (IHT, 1997). Freight routing strategies can form part of “Freight Quality Partnerships”, introduced in Sustainable Distribution: A Strategy (DETR, 1999) and promoted in A guide on how to set up and run Freight Quality Partnerships (DfT, 2003).

1.6 Information Provision

Improved provision for the Car

1.6.1 Conventional direction signing can provide benefits to car users, and other traffic, by reducing journey lengths and travel times; evidence suggests that around 6% of travel time may be accounted for by poor routeing, and that inadequate destination signing may as much as double the time spent searching for unfamiliar destinations (Jeffery, 1981). Conversely, direction signing can be used to divert traffic away from environmentally sensitive routes; however, familiar drivers are unlikely to respond to such measures.

1.6.2 Variable message signs enable drivers to be diverted away from known, but unpredictable congestion. They are very location-specific in their application, and hence in their benefits (Brown and Mackenzie, 1994). Benefits will primarily be in terms of travel times; although environmental and safety improvements may also be achieved. Inter-urban VMS signs from the HA Midlands Driver Information System have been found to significantly influence route choice in response to accident warnings on the carriageway ahead (Carden et al, 1999).

1.6.3 Real-time driver information systems and route guidance are a type of Intelligent Transport System application. Information from equipped vehicles or traffic sensors is used to provide radio or in-vehicle display messages (such as Trafficmaster) of delays, or to indicate preferred routes to avoid congestion. Dynamic route guidance systems can provide recommended routes to all equipped vehicles, dependent both on their destinations and the current traffic conditions. Most benefits will accrue to equipped vehicles, in the form of reduced travel times. Detailed mapping devices and combined route guidance and travel information systems are in development, and there is potential for systems of this sort to be linked in with wider ITS, allowing network managers to control the information sent to cars, and potentially enhance network efficiency.

1.6.4 Parking guidance and information systems are a further application of ITS principles, designed to reduce the high level of traffic searching for parking space in urban centres. Detectors identify car parks which are full or almost full, and trigger signs indicating the route to the nearest available space (examples can be found in IHT, 1997 and DoE/DoT, 1995). The efficiency and accessibility benefits from reduced searching may be associated with some reductions in environmental intrusion and accidents, depending upon local circumstances.

Measures to Restrain Car Use

1.6.5 Public awareness campaigns have been developed recently by several local authorities as ways of making residents, and particularly car users, more aware of the effects of their travel behaviour on the environment and in terms of sustainability, and to alert them to the alternatives available, including use of other modes and changes in destination and frequency of travel.

Provision for Public Transport

1.6.6 Timetable and other service information: improved information can generate additional patronage of public transport services (Pickett, 1982). This, in turn, can have accessibility and equity benefits and help to reduce car use.

1.6.7 Real time passenger information is now being provided, not just at major terminals, but at individual stations and bus stops, and on trains and (on the continent) in buses. Such information, on delays and alternatives, enables travellers to save time by taking alternative routes. Its main impact, however, is in reducing the uncertainty and stress associated with late running services. There is now some evidence that larger bus operators are prepared to invest in such information systems, in conjunction with local authorities, in order to increase market share. A further recent development are Trip Planning Systems (IHT, 1997), based on either dedicated terminals (at public transport interchanges and stations), over the telephone, or via the Internet.

1.6.8 Operation information systems use ITS-based fleet management facilities to identify locations of buses and to reschedule services to reduce the impact of unreliability.

Provisions for Cyclists and Pedestrians

1.6.9 Static direction signs can be used to enhance the use of cycle priority routes and to improve access within pedestrian areas for disabled pedestrians. Tactile footways are a further facility providing specifically for visually handicapped pedestrians. Public awareness campaigns can be used to encourage walking and cycling, and familiarise road users with appropriate signing.

Provision for Freight

1.6.10 Static direction signs may be the main element in voluntary lorry routeing schemes.

1.6.11 Fleet management systems have been introduced widely for freight vehicles, enabling them to respond more rapidly to the changing demands of Just in Time delivery schedules, and reducing the number of empty return journeys. They can also extend to dynamic route guidance to avoid congestion.

1.7 Pricing Measures

Measures to Restrain the Car

1.7.1 Parking charges enable demand to be kept below the supply of parking space. The wider impacts depend on the alternative used by the car driver; since parking on the fringes of the controlled area, or in private parking spaces, will inevitably have less impact on the environment and travel time than switching to public transport. As with parking controls (see paragraph 1.5.10), parking charges can readily be applied to publicly controlled parking space and powers exist to control charges at privately operated car parks under sections 43 and 44 of the Road Traffic Regulation Act 1984. Parking Advice from LPAC (1997) provides some useful information on applying parking policy.

1.7.2 Workplace Parking. Provisions in the recently-introduced Transport Bill would enable local authorities to levy a charge on all private non-residential parking at the workplace. The object of these powers is to reduce car-based commuting and ease congestion. Retail parking for consumers is excluded.

1.7.3 Urban and Inter-urban Charging. The current Transport Bill will enable local authorities outside London to introduce road user charging schemes or to levy a charge on workplace parking as part of a Local Transport Plan. Similar powers were granted to London’s Mayor and boroughs in the Greater London Authority Act 1999. The current Transport Bill allows for charging on trunk roads in two cases: road bridges and tunnels above 600 metres in length; and, when requested by a local authority to complement their own charging scheme.

1.7.4 There are no current plans to introduce more widespread charging on the inter-urban network. However, the studies are intended to develop medium to long term strategies to tackle the problems that exist within the study corridors. It is therefore important that all potential options are explored. It would therefore be appropriate for the studies to examine the contribution that charging on selected corridors and sections of the trunk road network might make to the delivery of the Government’s transport objectives.

1.7.5 DfT is currently undertaking an extensive programme of research into road-user charging to implement the commitments given in the White Paper. Work includes an on-road demonstration project at sites in England and Scotland and complementary off-road research. DfT is also working in the Charging Development Partnership, with those local authorities that have already identified road user charging or the workplace parking levy in their Local Transport Plans as a congestion management option. Options looked at in the studies involving charging schemes should be developed in consultation with DfT.

Provision for Public Transport

1.7.6 Fare levels can be adjusted on all public transport services, and will have a direct effect on patronage and on car use. Fare levels can be more flexibly implemented than service level changes, and may thus have a greater absolute impact on car use. Fare reductions can, therefore, contribute to efficiency and environmental objectives, as well as improving accessibility for public transport users and hence equity benefits. There is also some evidence that they can reduce accidents (Allsop, 1993).

1.7.7 Fares structures include the introduction of flat and zonal fares as alternatives to conventional graduated fares; lower off peak fares; and travelcards and season tickets which allow unlimited travel within a defined area. Changes in structure may contribute positively to efficiency, environmental and safety objectives, as well as improving accessibility by reducing the cost of marginal journeys. If appropriately designed, they may not impose a significant additional financial burden.

1.7.8 Concessionary fares provide lower fares or free travel to identifiable categories of passenger with special needs. These may include schoolchildren, elderly people and people with disabilities. While statutory school travel must be funded by local authorities, the others are currently optional. Their main benefits are in terms of equity and accessibility, in enabling people who would otherwise find public transport too expensive, or who cannot use cars, to travel.

Provision for Cyclists and Pedestrians

1.7.9 Pricing is rarely an issue for cyclists or pedestrians. However, some charges are made for secure cycle parking, especially if other amenities such as showers are available.

Provision for Freight

1.7.10 The fiscal measures described in paragraphs 1.7.1 to 1.7.5 are relevant for freight as well. Parking charges typically vary with vehicle type, and some congestion charging proposals envisage doing this.

2. Further Information

3. References

DETR (July 1998) A New Deal for Transport: Better for Everyone

DETR (July 1998) A New Deal for Trunk Roads in England

DETR (2000) Guidance on the Methodology for Multi-Modal Studies

DETR/ Energy Efficiency Best Practice Programme (EEBPP) (2000) A travel plan resources pack for employers (revised 2002)

DfT (2003) Guide to Producing Regional Transport Strategies

Highways Agency Design Manual for Roads and Bridges (DMRB)

ODPM (previously DETR) Regional Planning Guidance, Planning Policy Guidance Note 11 (PPG11)

Allsop, RE (1993). London fares and road casualties. Traffic Engineering and Control 34(12).

Carden P (1999) The Midlands Driver Information System: Influencing Route Choice, paper presented at the Driver Information Systems Conference, Institution for Electrical Engineers, Savoy Place, London.

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DETR (1999a). Guidance on Local Transport Plans.

DETR (1999b). From Workhorse to Thoroughbred: a better role for bus travel.

DETR (1999d). School Travel Strategies and Plans – A Best Practice Guide for Local Authorities

Dft (2002c). Using the Planning System to Secure Travel Plans: Best Practice Guidance for Local Authorities, Developers and Occupiers

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Finnamore, A J and Jackson, RL. Bus control systems: their application and justification. LR851. Crowthorne. TRRL.

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IHT (The Institution for Highways and Transportation) (1996). Developing Urban Transport Strategies.

IHT (The Institution for Highways and Transportation) (1997). Transport in the Urban Environment.

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Sustrans (1998). Safe routes to Schools: 3 year review.

TAS (1997). Quality Partnerships in the Bus Industry: A Survey and Review (unpublished report).

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4. Document Provenance

This Transport Analysis Guidance (TAG) Unit is based on Chapters 4 of Guidance on the Methodology for Multi-Modal Studies Volume 1 (DETR, 2000), with additional references to take account of more recent Government guidance, in particular in the travel plans area. Technical queries and comments on this TAG Unit should be referred to:

Integrated Transport Economic Appraisal (ITEA) Division
Department for Transport
Zone 3/08 Great Minster House
76 Marsham Street
London
SW1P 4DR
itea@dft.gsi.gov.uk
Tel 020 7944 6176
Fax 020 7944 2198